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Classification Tree Method

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about a software testing methodology. For decision trees and prediction modeling using them (known as Classification tree), see <a href="Decision_tree" title="Decision tree">Decision tree</a> and <a href="Classification_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification tree">Classification tree</a>.</div>

The Classification Tree Method is a method for test design,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> as it is used in different areas of <a href="Software_development" title="Software development">software development</a>.<a href="#cite_note-advStest-2">[2]</a>

It was developed by Grimm and Grochtmann in 1993.<a href="#cite_note-GG-3">[3]</a>

Classification Trees in terms of the Classification Tree Method must not be confused with <a href="Decision_tree" title="Decision tree">decision trees</a>.

The classification tree method consists of two major steps:<a href="#cite_note-lkk-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-pierre-5">[5]</a>

<ol><li>Identification of test relevant aspects (so called classifications) and their corresponding values (called classes) as well as</li>

<li>Combination of different classes from all classifications into <a href="Test_case" title="Test case">test cases</a>.</li></ol>

The identification of test relevant aspects usually follows the (functional) <a href="Specification" class="mw-redirect" title="Specification">specification</a> (e.g. <a href="Requirements" class="mw-redirect" title="Requirements">requirements</a>, <a href="Use_case" title="Use case">use cases</a> …) of the <a href="System_under_test" title="System under test">system under test</a>.

These aspects form the input and output data space of the test object.

The second step of test design then follows the principles of combinatorial test design.<a href="#cite_note-lkk-4">[4]</a>

While the method can be applied using a pen and a paper, the usual way involves the usage of the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Classification_Tree_Editor">Classification Tree Editor</a>, a software tool implementing the classification tree method.<a href="#cite_note-GW-6">[6]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Application">Application</h2></div>

Prerequisites for applying the classification tree method (CTM) is the selection (or definition) of a <a href="System_under_test" title="System under test">system under test</a>.

The CTM is a <a href="Black-box_testing" title="Black-box testing">black-box testing</a> method and supports any type of system under test. This includes (but is not limited to) <a href="Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware systems</a>, integrated hardware-software systems, plain <a href="Software_system" title="Software system">software systems</a>, including <a href="Embedded_software" title="Embedded software">embedded software</a>, <a href="User_interface" title="User interface">user interfaces</a>, <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a>, <a href="Parser" class="mw-redirect" title="Parser">parsers</a>, and others (or <a href="Subsystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsystem">subsystems</a> of mentioned systems).

With a selected system under test, the first step of the classification tree method is the identification of test relevant aspects.<a href="#cite_note-lkk-4">[4]</a>

Any system under test can be described by a set of classifications, holding both input and output parameters.

(Input parameters can also include <a href="Environment_(systems)" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment (systems)">environments</a> states, <a href="Pre-condition" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-condition">pre-conditions</a> and other, rather uncommon parameters).<a href="#cite_note-advStest-2">[2]</a>

Each classification can have any number of disjoint classes, describing the occurrence of the parameter.

The selection of classes typically follows the principle of <a href="Equivalence_partitioning" title="Equivalence partitioning">equivalence partitioning</a> for abstract test cases and <a href="Boundary-value_analysis" title="Boundary-value analysis">boundary-value analysis</a> for concrete test cases.<a href="#cite_note-pierre-5">[5]</a>

Together, all classifications form the classification tree.

For semantic purpose, classifications can be grouped into compositions.

The maximum number of test cases is the <a href="Cartesian_product" title="Cartesian product">Cartesian product</a> of all classes of all classifications in the tree, quickly resulting in large numbers for realistic test problems.

The minimum number of test cases is the number of classes in the classification with the most containing classes.

In the second step, test cases are composed by selecting exactly one class from every classification of the classification tree.

The selection of test cases originally<a href="#cite_note-GG-3">[3]</a> was a manual task to be performed by the <a href="Test_engineer" title="Test engineer">test engineer</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Example">Example</h3></div>

For a <a href="Database_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Database system">database system</a>, test design has to be performed.

Applying the classification tree method, the identification of test relevant aspects gives the classifications: User Privilege, Operation and Access Method.

For the User Privileges, two classes can be identified: Regular User and Administrator User.

There are three Operations: Add, Edit and Delete.

For the Access Method, again three classes are identified: Native Tool, <a href="Web_Browser" class="mw-redirect" title="Web Browser">Web Browser</a>, <a href="API" title="API">API</a>.

The Web Browser class is further refined with the test aspect Brand, three possible classes are included here: <a href="Internet_Explorer" title="Internet Explorer">Internet Explorer</a>, <a href="Mozilla_Firefox" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozilla Firefox">Mozilla Firefox</a>, and <a href="Apple_Safari" class="mw-redirect" title="Apple Safari">Apple Safari</a>.

The first step of the classification tree method now is complete. Of course, there are further possible test aspects to include, e.g. access speed of the connection, number of <a href="Database_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Database record">database records</a> present in the database, etc. Using the graphical representation in terms of a tree, the selected aspects and their corresponding values can quickly be reviewed.

For the statistics, there are 30 possible test cases in total (2 privileges * 3 operations * 5 access methods). For minimum coverage, 5 test cases are sufficient, as there are 5 access methods (and access method is the classification with the highest number of disjoint classes).

In the second step, three test cases have been manually selected:

<ol><li>A regular user adds a new data set to the database using the native tool.</li>

<li>An administrator user edits an existing data set using the Firefox browser.</li>

<li>A regular user deletes a data set from the database using the API.</li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Enhancements">Enhancements</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3></div>

The CTM introduced the following advantages<a href="#cite_note-advStest-2">[2]</a> over the Category Partition Method<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> (CPM) by Ostrand and Balcer:

<ul><li>Notation: CPM only had a textual notation, whereas CTM uses a graphical, tree-shaped representation.</li>

<li>Refinements Selecting one representative might have an influence on the occurrence of other representatives.</li></ul>

<dl><dd>CPM only offers restrictions to handle this scenario.</dd>

<dd>CTM allows modeling of hierarchical refinements in the classification tree, also called implicit dependencies.</dd></dl>

<ul><li>Tool support: The tool presented by Ostrand and Balcer only supported test case generation, but not the partitioning itself.</li></ul>

<dl><dd>Grochtmann and Wegener presented their tool, the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Classification_Tree_Editor">Classification Tree Editor</a> (CTE) which supports both partitioning as well as test case generation.<a href="#cite_note-GW-6">[6]</a></dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification_Tree_Method_for_Embedded_Systems">Classification Tree Method for Embedded Systems</h3></div>

The classification tree method first was intended for the design and specification of abstract test cases. With the classification tree method for embedded systems,<a href="#cite_note-conrad-8">[8]</a> test implementation can also be performed. Several additional features are integrated with the method:

<ol><li>In addition to atomic test cases, test sequences containing several test steps can be specified.</li>

<li>A concrete timing (e.g. in Seconds, Minutes ...) can be specified for each test step.</li>

<li>Signal transitions (e.g. <a href="Linear" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear">linear</a>, <a href="Spline_(mathematics)" title="Spline (mathematics)">spline</a>, <a href="Sine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sine">sine</a> ...) between selected classes of different test steps can be specified.</li>

<li>A distinction between <a href="Event_(computing)" title="Event (computing)">event</a> and <a href="State_(computer_science)" title="State (computer science)">state</a> can be modelled, represented by different visual marks in a test.</li></ol>

The module and <a href="Unit_testing" title="Unit testing">unit testing</a> tool Tessy relies on this extension.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dependency_Rules_and_Automated_Test_Case_Generation">Dependency Rules and Automated Test Case Generation</h3></div>

One way of modelling constraints is using the refinement mechanism in the classification tree method. This, however, does not allow for modelling <a href="Constraint_(information_theory)" title="Constraint (information theory)">constraints</a> between classes of different classifications. Lehmann and Wegener introduced Dependency Rules based on <a href="Boolean_expression" title="Boolean expression">Boolean expressions</a> with their incarnation of the CTE.<a href="#cite_note-LW-9">[9]</a> Further features include the automated generation of <a href="Test_suite" title="Test suite">test suites</a> using combinatorial test design (e.g. <a href="All-pairs_testing" title="All-pairs testing">all-pairs testing</a>).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prioritized_Test_Case_Generation">Prioritized Test Case Generation</h3></div>

Recent enhancements to the classification tree method include the <a href="Risk-based_testing" title="Risk-based testing">prioritized test case generation</a>: It is possible to assign weights to the elements of the classification tree in terms of occurrence and error <a href="Probability" title="Probability">probability</a> or risk. These weights are then used during test case generation to prioritize test cases.<a href="#cite_note-luniak-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <a href="Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistical testing</a> is also available (e.g. for <a href="Wear" title="Wear">wear</a> and <a href="Fatigue_(material)" title="Fatigue (material)">fatigue</a> tests) by interpreting the element weights as a <a href="Discrete_probability_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrete probability distribution">discrete probability distribution</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Test_Sequence_Generation">Test Sequence Generation</h3></div>

With the addition of valid transitions between individual classes of a classification, classifications can be interpreted as a <a href="Finite-state_machine" title="Finite-state machine">state machine</a>, and therefore the whole classification tree as a <a href="Statechart" class="mw-redirect" title="Statechart">Statechart</a>. This defines an allowed order of class usages in test steps and allows to automatically create test sequences.<a href="#cite_note-seqgen-12">[12]</a> Different coverage levels are available, such as <a href="Code_coverage#Basic_coverage_criteria" title="Code coverage">state coverage</a>, transitions coverage and coverage of state pairs and transition pairs.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numerical_Constraints">Numerical Constraints</h3></div>

In addition to Boolean dependency rules referring to classes of the classification tree, Numerical Constraints allow to specify <a href="Formula" title="Formula">formulas</a> with classifications as variables, which will evaluate to the selected class in a test case.<a href="#cite_note-numdeb-13">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_Tree_Editor">Classification Tree Editor</h2></div>

The Classification Tree Editor (CTE) is a software tool for test design that implements the classification tree method.<a href="#cite_note-vehicleElectronics-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-behave-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-justyna-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-model2-17">[17]</a>

Over the time, several editions of the CTE tool have appeared, written in several (by that time popular) <a href="Programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Programming languages">programming languages</a> and developed by several companies.

The original version of CTE was developed at <a href="Daimler-Benz" class="mw-redirect" title="Daimler-Benz">Daimler-Benz</a> Industrial Research<a href="#cite_note-GW-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-justyna-16">[16]</a> facilities in Berlin.

It appeared in 1993 and was written in <a href="Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a>. It was only available on <a href="Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> systems.

In 1997 a major re-implementation was performed, leading to CTE 2. Development again was at Daimler-Benz Industrial Research. It was written in <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> and available for <a href="Win32" class="mw-redirect" title="Win32">win32</a> systems.

The CTE 2 was licensed to Razorcat in 1997 and is part of the TESSY unit test tool.

The classification tree editor for embedded systems<a href="#cite_note-conrad-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-behave-15">[15]</a> also based upon this edition.

Razorcat has been developing the CTE since 2001 and has CTE registered a brand name in 2003.

The last version CTE 3.2 was published with the tool TESSY 4.0 in 2016. Note the Versions table below.

The CTE 4 was implemented in TESSY 4.1.7 as an <a href="Eclipse_(software)" title="Eclipse (software)">Eclipse</a> plug-in in 2018. The latest CTE 4 version is still being developed as part of TESSY 4.3 in 2021.

In 2000, Lehmann and Wegener introduced Dependency Rules with their incarnation of the CTE, the CTE XL (eXtended Logics).<a href="#cite_note-LW-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-vehicleElectronics-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-model2-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-rob-18">[18]</a> Further features include the automated generation of <a href="Test_suite" title="Test suite">test suites</a> using combinatorial test design (e.g. <a href="All-pairs_testing" title="All-pairs testing">all-pairs testing</a>).<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>

Development was performed by <a href="DaimlerChrysler" class="mw-redirect" title="DaimlerChrysler">DaimlerChrysler</a>. CTE XL was written in <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> and was supported on win32 systems.

CTE XL was available for download free of charge.

In 2008, Berner&Mattner acquired all rights on CTE XL and continued development till CTE XL 1.9.4.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CTE_XL_Professional">CTE XL Professional</h3></div>

Starting in 2010, CTE XL Professional was developed by Berner&Mattner.<a href="#cite_note-luniak-10">[10]</a> A complete re-implementation was done, again using <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> but this time <a href="Eclipse_(software)" title="Eclipse (software)">Eclipse</a>-based. CTE XL Professional was available on win32 and <a href="Win64" class="mw-redirect" title="Win64">win64</a> systems.

New developments included:

<ul><li>Prioritized test case generation: It is possible to assign weights to the elements of the classification tree in terms of occurrence and error <a href="Probability" title="Probability">probability</a> or risk. These weights are then used during test case generation to prioritize test cases.<a href="#cite_note-luniak-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <a href="Risk-based_testing" title="Risk-based testing">Risk-based</a> and statistical testing is also available.</li>

<li>Test Sequence Generation<a href="#cite_note-seqgen-12">[12]</a> using <a href="Multi-Agent_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-Agent System">Multi-Agent Systems</a></li>

<li>Numerical Constraints<a href="#cite_note-numdeb-13">[13]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="TESTONA">TESTONA</h3></div>

In 2014, Berner&Mattner started releasing its classification tree editor under the <a href="Brand" title="Brand">brand</a> name <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.testona.net">TESTONA</a>.

A <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.testona.net/en/webshop/testona-light-free-of-charge/index.html">free edition of TESTONA</a> is still available for download free of charge, however, with reduced functionality.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Versions">Versions</h3></div>

<th>Version</th>

<th>Comment</th>

<th>Written in</th>

<th>OS

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Original Version,<a href="#cite_note-GW-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-justyna-16">[16]</a> limited to 1000 test cases (fix!)</td>

<td><a href="Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a></td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Windows Version,<a href="#cite_note-behave-15">[15]</a> unlimited number of test cases</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>CTE 2.1

</td>

<td>2003

</td>

<td>Embedded system version of Razorcats part of the TESSY tool.

</td>

<td>C++

</td>

<td>win32

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Dependency Rules, Test Case Generation<a href="#cite_note-LW-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-vehicleElectronics-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-model2-17">[17]</a></td>

<td>win32

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Last Version by Daimler-Benz<a href="#cite_note-rob-18">[18]</a></td>

<td>win32

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Development by Berner&Mattner</td>

<td>win32

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Last Java-only Version</td>

<td>win32

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>CTE XL Professional 2.1</td>

<td>First <a href="Eclipse_(software)" title="Eclipse (software)">Eclipse</a>-based Version, Prioritized Test Case Generation,<a href="#cite_note-luniak-10">[10]</a> <a href="Deterministic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deterministic">Deterministic</a> Test Case Generation, <a href="Requirements_traceability" title="Requirements traceability">Requirements-Tracing</a> with <a href="IBM_Rational_DOORS" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Rational DOORS">DOORS</a></td>

<td><a href="Java_version_history#Java_SE_6" title="Java version history">Java 6</a>, <a href="Eclipse_(software)" title="Eclipse (software)">Eclipse</a> 3.5</td>

<td>win32

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>CTE XL Professional 2.3</td>

<td><a href="Quality_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Quality Center">QualityCenter</a> integration, Requirements Coverage Analysis and <a href="Traceability_matrix" title="Traceability matrix">Traceability Matrix</a>, <a href="API" title="API">API</a></td>

<td>Java 6, Eclipse 3.6</td>

<td>win32

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>CTE XL Professional 2.5</td>

<td>Test result annotation, <a href="Mind_map" title="Mind map">MindMap</a> import</td>

<td>Java 6, Eclipse 3.6</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>CTE XL Professional 2.7</td>

<td>Bug fix release</td>

<td>Java 6, Eclipse 3.6</td>

<td>win32, win64

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>CTE XL Professional 2.9</td>

<td>Implicit Mark Mode, Default classes, <a href="Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">command-line interface</a></td>

<td>Java 6, Eclipse 3.7</td>

<td>win32, win64

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>CTE XL Professional 3.1</td>

<td>Test Post-Evaluation (e.g. for <a href="Root_cause_analysis" title="Root cause analysis">Root Cause Analysis</a>), Test Sequence Generation,<a href="#cite_note-seqgen-12">[12]</a> Numerical Constraints<a href="#cite_note-numdeb-13">[13]</a></td>

<td>Java 6, Eclipse 3.7</td>

<td>win32, win64

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>CTE XL Professional 3.3</td>

<td>Test Coverage Analysis, Variant Management (e.g. as part of <a href="Product_family_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Product family engineering">Product Family Engineering</a>), Equivalence Class Testing</td>

<td>Java 6, Eclipse 3.7</td>

<td>win32, win64

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>CTE XL Professional 3.5</td>

<td>Boundary Value Analysis Wizard, Import of <a href="AUTOSAR" title="AUTOSAR">AUTOSAR</a> and <a href="MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a> models</td>

<td><a href="Java_version_history#Java_SE_7" title="Java version history">Java 7</a>, Eclipse 3.8</td>

<td>win32, win64

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>TESTONA 4.1</td>

<td>Bug fix release</td>

<td>Java 7, Eclipse 3.8</td>

<td>win32, win64

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>TESTONA 4.3</td>

<td>Generation of Executable <a href="Test_script" title="Test script">Test Scripts</a> (<a href="Code_generation_(compiler)" title="Code generation (compiler)">Code Generation</a>), Import of Test Results<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></td>

<td>Java 7, Eclipse 3.8</td>

<td>win32, win64

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>TESTONA 4.5</td>

<td>Enhanced Export Facilities, <a href="GUI" class="mw-redirect" title="GUI">GUI</a> Improvements</td>

<td>Java 7, Eclipse 3.8</td>

<td>win32, win64

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>TESTONA 5.1</td>

<td>Bug fix release, Switch to <a href="Java_version_history#Java_SE_8" title="Java version history">Java 8</a>, Eclipse 4.5</td>

<td><a href="Java_version_history#Java_SE_8" title="Java version history">Java 8</a>, Eclipse 4.5</td>

<td>win32, win64

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>CTE 4.0

</td>

<td>2018-08-01

</td>

<td>New implementation of Razorcat as a plug-in for the TESSY 4.1 tool based on <a href="Eclipse_(software)" title="Eclipse (software)">Eclipse</a>. Support in creating (model-based) test cases.

</td>

<td>Java

</td>

<td>win32

win64

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages">Advantages</h2></div>

<ul><li>Graphical representation of test relevant aspects<a href="#cite_note-advStest-2">[2]</a></li>

<li>Method for both identification of relevant test aspects and their combination into test cases<a href="#cite_note-lkk-4">[4]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limitations">Limitations</h2></div>

<ul><li>When test design with the classification tree method is performed without proper test decomposition, classification trees can get large and cumbersome.</li>

<li>New users tend to include too many (esp. irrelevant) test aspects resulting in too many test cases.</li>

<li>There is no algorithm or strict guidance for selection of test relevant aspects.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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